CWE-470
AllowedUse of Externally-Controlled Input to Select Classes or Code ('Unsafe Reflection')
Abstraction: Base · Status: Draft
The product uses external input with reflection to select which classes or code to use, but it does not sufficiently prevent the input from selecting improper classes or code.
212 vulnerabilities reference this CWE, most recent first.
GHSA-HP3V-5VW7-FX9W
Vulnerability from github – Published: 2026-09-17 16:30 – Updated: 2026-09-17 16:30Impact
RestrictedPython could allow a sandbox escape when a policy exposes the standard library string module, or otherwise exposes string.Formatter, to restricted code.
string.Formatter field resolution methods such as get_field can perform attribute and item traversal internally and return live object references. This can bypass RestrictedPython's normal attribute guards and may allow access to sensitive objects such as function globals, builtins, file access, or code execution primitives.
Users are impacted if they run untrusted code with RestrictedPython and expose string.Formatter, directly or indirectly, for example through a custom import policy or globals.
Patches
The problem has been patched by blocking access to string.Formatter and unsafe string.Formatter traversal methods in safer_getattr.
Users should upgrade to the patched release once available. Affected and patched version numbers should be filled in when the release is published.
Workarounds
Do not expose the standard library string module or string.Formatter to restricted code.
If a custom import hook is used, deny imports of string or provide only a restricted wrapper that does not expose Formatter. If custom globals are supplied, ensure neither string.Formatter nor Formatter instances are available to restricted code.
{
"affected": [
{
"package": {
"ecosystem": "PyPI",
"name": "RestrictedPython"
},
"ranges": [
{
"events": [
{
"introduced": "0"
},
{
"fixed": "8.4"
}
],
"type": "ECOSYSTEM"
}
]
}
],
"aliases": [
"CVE-2026-76825"
],
"database_specific": {
"cwe_ids": [
"CWE-200",
"CWE-470",
"CWE-680",
"CWE-693"
],
"github_reviewed": true,
"github_reviewed_at": "2026-09-17T16:30:22Z",
"nvd_published_at": "2026-09-16T15:17:46Z",
"severity": "HIGH"
},
"details": "### Impact\nRestrictedPython could allow a sandbox escape when a policy exposes the standard library `string` module, or otherwise exposes `string.Formatter`, to restricted code.\n\n`string.Formatter` field resolution methods such as `get_field` can perform attribute and item traversal internally and return live object references. This can bypass RestrictedPython\u0027s normal attribute guards and may allow access to sensitive objects such as function globals, builtins, file access, or code execution primitives.\n\nUsers are impacted if they run untrusted code with RestrictedPython and expose `string.Formatter`, directly or indirectly, for example through a custom import policy or globals.\n\n### Patches\nThe problem has been patched by blocking access to `string.Formatter` and unsafe `string.Formatter` traversal methods in `safer_getattr`.\n\nUsers should upgrade to the patched release once available. Affected and patched version numbers should be filled in when the release is published.\n\n### Workarounds\nDo not expose the standard library `string` module or `string.Formatter` to restricted code.\n\nIf a custom import hook is used, deny imports of `string` or provide only a restricted wrapper that does not expose `Formatter`. If custom globals are supplied, ensure neither `string.Formatter` nor `Formatter` instances are available to restricted code.",
"id": "GHSA-hp3v-5vw7-fx9w",
"modified": "2026-09-17T16:30:22Z",
"published": "2026-09-17T16:30:22Z",
"references": [
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://github.com/zopefoundation/RestrictedPython/security/advisories/GHSA-hp3v-5vw7-fx9w"
},
{
"type": "ADVISORY",
"url": "https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2026-76825"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://github.com/zopefoundation/RestrictedPython/commit/3b47440070b91f8807c2b2998aca99e94783639a"
},
{
"type": "PACKAGE",
"url": "https://github.com/zopefoundation/RestrictedPython"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://github.com/zopefoundation/RestrictedPython/releases/tag/8.4"
}
],
"schema_version": "1.4.0",
"severity": [
{
"score": "CVSS:3.1/AV:N/AC:L/PR:H/UI:R/S:C/C:H/I:H/A:H",
"type": "CVSS_V3"
}
],
"summary": "RestrictedPython vulnerable to sandbox escape via string.Formatter field resolution"
}
GHSA-HQ36-J573-G8VP
Vulnerability from github – Published: 2023-07-06 21:15 – Updated: 2026-02-25 18:31IdentityIQ 8.3 and all 8.3 patch levels prior to 8.3p3, IdentityIQ 8.2 and all 8.2 patch levels prior to 8.2p6, IdentityIQ 8.1 and all 8.1 patch levels prior to 8.1p7, IdentityIQ 8.0 and all 8.0 patch levels prior to 8.0p6 allow an authenticated user to invoke a Java constructor with no arguments or a Java constructor with a single Map argument in any Java class available in the IdentityIQ application classpath.
{
"affected": [],
"aliases": [
"CVE-2023-32217"
],
"database_specific": {
"cwe_ids": [
"CWE-470"
],
"github_reviewed": false,
"github_reviewed_at": null,
"nvd_published_at": "2023-06-05T04:15:10Z",
"severity": "HIGH"
},
"details": "IdentityIQ 8.3 and all 8.3 patch levels prior to 8.3p3, IdentityIQ 8.2 and all 8.2 patch levels prior to 8.2p6, IdentityIQ 8.1 and all 8.1 patch levels prior to 8.1p7, IdentityIQ 8.0 and all 8.0 patch levels prior to 8.0p6\u00a0allow an authenticated user to invoke a Java constructor with no arguments or a Java constructor with a single Map argument in any Java class available in the IdentityIQ application classpath.",
"id": "GHSA-hq36-j573-g8vp",
"modified": "2026-02-25T18:31:22Z",
"published": "2023-07-06T21:15:07Z",
"references": [
{
"type": "ADVISORY",
"url": "https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2023-32217"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://www.sailpoint.com/security-advisories/sailpoint-identityiq-unsafe-use-of-reflection-vulnerability-cve-2023-32217"
}
],
"schema_version": "1.4.0",
"severity": [
{
"score": "CVSS:3.1/AV:N/AC:L/PR:L/UI:R/S:C/C:H/I:H/A:H",
"type": "CVSS_V3"
}
]
}
GHSA-J2VP-F2PV-5RJ4
Vulnerability from github – Published: 2026-08-06 19:28 – Updated: 2026-08-06 19:28Impact
Manipulating user-supplied input incorporated into Antlers templates could result in the loss of content and assets.
Exploitation requires a site to have templates that pass untrusted input into affected areas. It does not require authentication.
Patches
This has been fixed in 5.74.1 and 6.24.0.
{
"affected": [
{
"package": {
"ecosystem": "Packagist",
"name": "statamic/cms"
},
"ranges": [
{
"events": [
{
"introduced": "0"
},
{
"fixed": "5.74.1"
}
],
"type": "ECOSYSTEM"
}
]
},
{
"package": {
"ecosystem": "Packagist",
"name": "statamic/cms"
},
"ranges": [
{
"events": [
{
"introduced": "6.0.0"
},
{
"fixed": "6.24.0"
}
],
"type": "ECOSYSTEM"
}
]
}
],
"aliases": [
"CVE-2026-64663"
],
"database_specific": {
"cwe_ids": [
"CWE-470"
],
"github_reviewed": true,
"github_reviewed_at": "2026-08-06T19:28:08Z",
"nvd_published_at": null,
"severity": "MODERATE"
},
"details": "### Impact\n\nManipulating user-supplied input incorporated into Antlers templates could result in the loss of content and assets.\n\nExploitation requires a site to have templates that pass untrusted input into affected areas. It does not require authentication.\n\n### Patches\n\nThis has been fixed in 5.74.1 and 6.24.0.",
"id": "GHSA-j2vp-f2pv-5rj4",
"modified": "2026-08-06T19:28:08Z",
"published": "2026-08-06T19:28:08Z",
"references": [
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://github.com/statamic/cms/security/advisories/GHSA-j2vp-f2pv-5rj4"
},
{
"type": "PACKAGE",
"url": "https://github.com/statamic/cms"
}
],
"schema_version": "1.4.0",
"severity": [
{
"score": "CVSS:3.1/AV:N/AC:H/PR:N/UI:N/S:U/C:N/I:L/A:H",
"type": "CVSS_V3"
}
],
"summary": "Statamic: Unsafe method invocation via Antlers template resolution allows data destruction"
}
GHSA-JPG7-857P-MPQG
Vulnerability from github – Published: 2023-07-05 09:30 – Updated: 2024-04-04 05:23A website could have obscured the fullscreen notification by using a URL with a scheme handled by an external program, such as a mailto URL. This could have led to user confusion and possible spoofing attacks. This vulnerability affects Firefox < 115, Firefox ESR < 102.13, and Thunderbird < 102.13.
{
"affected": [],
"aliases": [
"CVE-2023-37207"
],
"database_specific": {
"cwe_ids": [
"CWE-470"
],
"github_reviewed": false,
"github_reviewed_at": null,
"nvd_published_at": "2023-07-05T09:15:09Z",
"severity": "MODERATE"
},
"details": "A website could have obscured the fullscreen notification by using a URL with a scheme handled by an external program, such as a mailto URL. This could have led to user confusion and possible spoofing attacks. This vulnerability affects Firefox \u003c 115, Firefox ESR \u003c 102.13, and Thunderbird \u003c 102.13.",
"id": "GHSA-jpg7-857p-mpqg",
"modified": "2024-04-04T05:23:17Z",
"published": "2023-07-05T09:30:20Z",
"references": [
{
"type": "ADVISORY",
"url": "https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2023-37207"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://bugzilla.mozilla.org/show_bug.cgi?id=1816287"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://lists.debian.org/debian-lts-announce/2023/07/msg00006.html"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://lists.debian.org/debian-lts-announce/2023/07/msg00015.html"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://www.debian.org/security/2023/dsa-5450"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://www.debian.org/security/2023/dsa-5451"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://www.mozilla.org/security/advisories/mfsa2023-22"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://www.mozilla.org/security/advisories/mfsa2023-23"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://www.mozilla.org/security/advisories/mfsa2023-24"
}
],
"schema_version": "1.4.0",
"severity": [
{
"score": "CVSS:3.1/AV:N/AC:L/PR:N/UI:R/S:U/C:N/I:H/A:N",
"type": "CVSS_V3"
}
]
}
GHSA-JPMX-7C66-9JWF
Vulnerability from github – Published: 2026-07-22 15:31 – Updated: 2026-07-22 15:31In Progress® Telerik® UI for AJAX prior to v2026.2.708, DialogHandler provider type input may be tampered with, potentially altering dialog processing and enabling chained exploitation.
{
"affected": [],
"aliases": [
"CVE-2026-13187"
],
"database_specific": {
"cwe_ids": [
"CWE-470"
],
"github_reviewed": false,
"github_reviewed_at": null,
"nvd_published_at": "2026-07-22T14:17:14Z",
"severity": "HIGH"
},
"details": "In Progress\u00ae Telerik\u00ae UI for AJAX prior to v2026.2.708, DialogHandler provider type input may be tampered with, potentially altering dialog processing and enabling chained exploitation.",
"id": "GHSA-jpmx-7c66-9jwf",
"modified": "2026-07-22T15:31:22Z",
"published": "2026-07-22T15:31:22Z",
"references": [
{
"type": "ADVISORY",
"url": "https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2026-13187"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://www.telerik.com/products/aspnet-ajax/documentation/knowledge-base/kb-security-dialoghandler-provider-type-tampering-CVE-2026-13187"
}
],
"schema_version": "1.4.0",
"severity": [
{
"score": "CVSS:3.1/AV:N/AC:H/PR:N/UI:N/S:U/C:H/I:H/A:H",
"type": "CVSS_V3"
}
]
}
GHSA-M4F6-5759-Q864
Vulnerability from github – Published: 2026-08-05 09:31 – Updated: 2026-08-05 09:31The ShopLentor plugin for WordPress is vulnerable to arbitrary function execution via the woolentoropt/v1/custom-action REST API endpoint in all versions up to, and including, 3.3.7. This is due to the handle_action() method passing user-supplied input directly to call_user_func() without an allowlist of permitted callbacks. This makes it possible for authenticated attackers, with Administrator-level access and above, to execute arbitrary PHP callable functions via the 'callback' parameter.
{
"affected": [],
"aliases": [
"CVE-2026-6020"
],
"database_specific": {
"cwe_ids": [
"CWE-470"
],
"github_reviewed": false,
"github_reviewed_at": null,
"nvd_published_at": "2026-08-05T08:16:40Z",
"severity": "HIGH"
},
"details": "The ShopLentor plugin for WordPress is vulnerable to arbitrary function execution via the woolentoropt/v1/custom-action REST API endpoint in all versions up to, and including, 3.3.7. This is due to the handle_action() method passing user-supplied input directly to call_user_func() without an allowlist of permitted callbacks. This makes it possible for authenticated attackers, with Administrator-level access and above, to execute arbitrary PHP callable functions via the \u0027callback\u0027 parameter.",
"id": "GHSA-m4f6-5759-q864",
"modified": "2026-08-05T09:31:17Z",
"published": "2026-08-05T09:31:17Z",
"references": [
{
"type": "ADVISORY",
"url": "https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2026-6020"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://plugins.trac.wordpress.org/browser/woolentor-addons/trunk/includes/admin-panel/includes/classes/Api/Custom_Actions.php#L99"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://plugins.trac.wordpress.org/changeset?sfp_email=\u0026sfph_mail=\u0026reponame=\u0026new=3504292%40woolentor-addons%2Ftrunk\u0026old=3493678%40woolentor-addons%2Ftrunk\u0026sfp_email=\u0026sfph_mail="
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://www.wordfence.com/threat-intel/vulnerabilities/id/00138875-d892-460c-b0ce-7a01335d26dc?source=cve"
}
],
"schema_version": "1.4.0",
"severity": [
{
"score": "CVSS:3.1/AV:N/AC:L/PR:H/UI:N/S:U/C:H/I:H/A:H",
"type": "CVSS_V3"
}
]
}
GHSA-M4RX-9MRH-59G9
Vulnerability from github – Published: 2026-08-05 18:31 – Updated: 2026-08-05 18:31IBM WebSphere Application Server 8.5, and 9.0 and IBM WebSphere Application Server - Liberty Continuous delivery has a flaw in the ORB component in IBM SDK, Java Technology Edition, may allow a malicious IIOP server to induce loading and instantation of arbitrary classes.
{
"affected": [],
"aliases": [
"CVE-2026-8400"
],
"database_specific": {
"cwe_ids": [
"CWE-470"
],
"github_reviewed": false,
"github_reviewed_at": null,
"nvd_published_at": "2026-08-05T16:17:09Z",
"severity": "HIGH"
},
"details": "IBM WebSphere Application Server 8.5, and 9.0 and IBM WebSphere Application Server - Liberty Continuous delivery has a flaw in the ORB component in IBM SDK, Java Technology Edition, may allow a malicious IIOP server to induce loading and instantation of arbitrary classes.",
"id": "GHSA-m4rx-9mrh-59g9",
"modified": "2026-08-05T18:31:37Z",
"published": "2026-08-05T18:31:37Z",
"references": [
{
"type": "ADVISORY",
"url": "https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2026-8400"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://www.ibm.com/support/pages/node/7282446"
}
],
"schema_version": "1.4.0",
"severity": [
{
"score": "CVSS:3.1/AV:N/AC:H/PR:N/UI:N/S:U/C:H/I:H/A:H",
"type": "CVSS_V3"
}
]
}
GHSA-M7G5-QWGM-89MC
Vulnerability from github – Published: 2024-07-04 09:32 – Updated: 2026-04-08 15:31Use of Externally-Controlled Input to Select Classes or Code ('Unsafe Reflection') vulnerability in the licensing feature of ICONICS GENESIS64 versions 10.97 to 10.97.2, Mitsubishi Electric GENESIS64 versions 10.97 to 10.97.2 and Mitsubishi Electric MC Works64 all versions allows a local attacker to execute a malicious code with administrative privileges by tampering with a specific file that is not protected by the system.
{
"affected": [],
"aliases": [
"CVE-2024-1574"
],
"database_specific": {
"cwe_ids": [
"CWE-470"
],
"github_reviewed": false,
"github_reviewed_at": null,
"nvd_published_at": "2024-07-04T09:15:03Z",
"severity": "MODERATE"
},
"details": "Use of Externally-Controlled Input to Select Classes or Code (\u0027Unsafe Reflection\u0027) vulnerability in the licensing feature of ICONICS GENESIS64 versions 10.97 to 10.97.2, Mitsubishi Electric GENESIS64 versions 10.97 to 10.97.2 and Mitsubishi Electric MC Works64 all versions allows a local attacker to execute a malicious code with administrative privileges by tampering with a specific file that is not protected by the system.",
"id": "GHSA-m7g5-qwgm-89mc",
"modified": "2026-04-08T15:31:42Z",
"published": "2024-07-04T09:32:49Z",
"references": [
{
"type": "ADVISORY",
"url": "https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2024-1574"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://jvn.jp/vu/JVNVU98894016"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://www.cisa.gov/news-events/ics-advisories/icsa-24-184-03"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://www.mitsubishielectric.com/en/psirt/vulnerability/pdf/2024-004_en.pdf"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://www.mitsubishielectric.com/psirt/vulnerability/pdf/2024-004_en.pdf"
}
],
"schema_version": "1.4.0",
"severity": [
{
"score": "CVSS:3.1/AV:L/AC:H/PR:L/UI:R/S:U/C:H/I:H/A:H",
"type": "CVSS_V3"
}
]
}
GHSA-M92M-R54R-X8R2
Vulnerability from github – Published: 2026-06-26 22:15 – Updated: 2026-06-26 22:15Impact
The fix for GHSA-4jjr-vmv7-wh4w was incomplete. It addressed the issue in the query builder, but the same protection was not applied to in-memory collection sorting. Manipulating sort parameters could result in the loss of content and assets.
This requires a front-end template that passes request input into a tag's sort parameter. It is not exploitable by default — a template would need to be explicitly set up to sort by a visitor-controlled value.
Patches
This has been fixed in 5.73.23 and 6.20.0.
{
"affected": [
{
"package": {
"ecosystem": "Packagist",
"name": "statamic/cms"
},
"ranges": [
{
"events": [
{
"introduced": "0"
},
{
"fixed": "5.73.23"
}
],
"type": "ECOSYSTEM"
}
]
},
{
"package": {
"ecosystem": "Packagist",
"name": "statamic/cms"
},
"ranges": [
{
"events": [
{
"introduced": "6.0.0"
},
{
"fixed": "6.20.0"
}
],
"type": "ECOSYSTEM"
}
]
}
],
"aliases": [
"CVE-2026-49287"
],
"database_specific": {
"cwe_ids": [
"CWE-470"
],
"github_reviewed": true,
"github_reviewed_at": "2026-06-26T22:15:47Z",
"nvd_published_at": "2026-06-19T18:16:19Z",
"severity": "HIGH"
},
"details": "### Impact\n\nThe fix for GHSA-4jjr-vmv7-wh4w was incomplete. It addressed the issue in the query builder, but the same protection was not applied to in-memory collection sorting. Manipulating sort parameters could result in the loss of content and assets.\n\nThis requires a front-end template that passes request input into a tag\u0027s sort parameter. It is not exploitable by default \u2014 a template would need to be explicitly set up to sort by a visitor-controlled value.\n\n### Patches\n\nThis has been fixed in 5.73.23 and 6.20.0.",
"id": "GHSA-m92m-r54r-x8r2",
"modified": "2026-06-26T22:15:47Z",
"published": "2026-06-26T22:15:47Z",
"references": [
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://github.com/statamic/cms/security/advisories/GHSA-4jjr-vmv7-wh4w"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://github.com/statamic/cms/security/advisories/GHSA-m92m-r54r-x8r2"
},
{
"type": "ADVISORY",
"url": "https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2026-49287"
},
{
"type": "PACKAGE",
"url": "https://github.com/statamic/cms"
}
],
"schema_version": "1.4.0",
"severity": [
{
"score": "CVSS:3.1/AV:N/AC:H/PR:N/UI:N/S:U/C:N/I:H/A:H",
"type": "CVSS_V3"
}
],
"summary": "Statamic CMS\u0027s unsafe method invocation via collection sorting allows data destruction"
}
GHSA-MJG5-WJ9R-9MFX
Vulnerability from github – Published: 2026-08-28 18:31 – Updated: 2026-08-31 21:31An unsafe dynamic class loading vulnerability exists in the database connection utilities of PaperCut MF and PaperCut NG. The application instantiates database driver classes based on configurable driver names without validating against an allowlist of approved drivers. If an attacker can manipulate system configuration parameters, this enables the execution of arbitrary Java bytecode residing on the application classpath under the security context of the PaperCut server process.
{
"affected": [],
"aliases": [
"CVE-2026-82078"
],
"database_specific": {
"cwe_ids": [
"CWE-470"
],
"github_reviewed": false,
"github_reviewed_at": null,
"nvd_published_at": "2026-08-28T16:18:31Z",
"severity": "CRITICAL"
},
"details": "An unsafe dynamic class loading vulnerability exists in the database connection utilities of PaperCut MF and PaperCut NG. The application instantiates database driver classes based on configurable driver names without validating against an allowlist of approved drivers. If an attacker can manipulate system configuration parameters, this enables the execution of arbitrary Java bytecode residing on the application classpath under the security context of the PaperCut server process.",
"id": "GHSA-mjg5-wj9r-9mfx",
"modified": "2026-08-31T21:31:55Z",
"published": "2026-08-28T18:31:30Z",
"references": [
{
"type": "ADVISORY",
"url": "https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2026-82078"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://github.com/rapid7/metasploit-framework/pull/21842"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://www.cisa.gov/known-exploited-vulnerabilities-catalog?field_cve=CVE-2026-82078"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://www.papercut.com/kb/Main/security-bulletin-27-aug-2026-urgent-security-advisory"
}
],
"schema_version": "1.4.0",
"severity": [
{
"score": "CVSS:3.1/AV:N/AC:L/PR:H/UI:N/S:C/C:H/I:H/A:H",
"type": "CVSS_V3"
},
{
"score": "CVSS:4.0/AV:N/AC:L/AT:N/PR:H/UI:N/VC:H/VI:H/VA:H/SC:H/SI:H/SA:H/E:X/CR:X/IR:X/AR:X/MAV:X/MAC:X/MAT:X/MPR:X/MUI:X/MVC:X/MVI:X/MVA:X/MSC:X/MSI:X/MSA:X/S:X/AU:X/R:X/V:X/RE:X/U:X",
"type": "CVSS_V4"
}
]
}
Mitigation
Refactor your code to avoid using reflection.
Mitigation
Do not use user-controlled inputs to select and load classes or code.
Mitigation
Apply strict input validation by using allowlists or indirect selection to ensure that the user is only selecting allowable classes or code.
CAPEC-138: Reflection Injection
An adversary supplies a value to the target application which is then used by reflection methods to identify a class, method, or field. For example, in the Java programming language the reflection libraries permit an application to inspect, load, and invoke classes and their components by name. If an adversary can control the input into these methods including the name of the class/method/field or the parameters passed to methods, they can cause the targeted application to invoke incorrect methods, read random fields, or even to load and utilize malicious classes that the adversary created. This can lead to the application revealing sensitive information, returning incorrect results, or even having the adversary take control of the targeted application.